{"id":83,"date":"2021-06-09T23:03:45","date_gmt":"2021-06-09T23:03:45","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/?page_id=83"},"modified":"2021-07-04T04:07:50","modified_gmt":"2021-07-04T04:07:50","slug":"from-plessy-1896-to-brown-1956","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/from-plessy-1896-to-brown-1956\/","title":{"rendered":"From Plessy 1896 to Brown 1954- Timeline"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><\/h2>\n\n\n            <style>\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 {\r\n                    width: 100%;\r\n                    padding: 0 !important;\r\n                    box-sizing: content-box !important;\r\n                    -moz-box-sizing: content-box !important;\r\n                    -webkit-box-sizing: content-box !important;\r\n                    height: 350px;\r\n                    overflow: hidden;\r\n                    margin: 0px auto;\r\n                    position: relative;\r\n                    cursor: default;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_dates_1_3 {\r\n                    height: 100%;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_dates_1_3 li {\r\n                    list-style: none;\r\n                    height: 100% !important;\r\n                    padding: 0;\r\n                    line-height: 30px;\r\n                    float: left;\r\n                    width: 100px;\r\n                    font-size: 24px;\r\n                    text-align: center;\r\n                    position: relative;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_dates_1_3 a {\r\n                    padding: 0;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_dates_1_3 .selected {\r\n                    font-size: 38px;\r\n                    color: #000000 !important;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_issues_1_3 {\r\n                    width: 100%;\r\n                    height: 350px;\r\n                    overflow: hidden;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_issues_1_3 li {\r\n                    width: 100%;\r\n                    height: 350px;\r\n                    margin: 0 !important;\r\n                    opacity: 1 !important;\r\n                    list-style: none;\r\n                    float: left;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_issues_1_3 li.selected img {\r\n                    -webkit-transform: scale(1.1, 1.1);\r\n                    -moz-transform: scale(1.1, 1.1);\r\n                    -o-transform: scale(1.1, 1.1);\r\n                    -ms-transform: scale(1.1, 1.1);\r\n                    transform: scale(1.1, 1.1);\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_issues_1_3 li img {\r\n                    float: left;\r\n                    margin: 10px 30px 10px 50px;\r\n                    background: transparent;\r\n                    -ms-filter: 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20px 0;\r\n                    text-shadow: #000 1px 1px 2px;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 {\r\n                    width: 100%;\r\n                    height: 450px;\r\n                    max-width: 100%;\r\n                    background-color: #ffffff !important;\r\n                    box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px #4ff7ae !important;\r\n                    -moz-box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px #4ff7ae !important;\r\n                    -webkit-box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px #4ff7ae !important;\r\n                    border: 0pxsolid #843256;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3:hover {\r\n                    box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px #3beaf9 !important;\r\n                    -moz-box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px #3beaf9 !important;\r\n                    -webkit-box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px #3beaf9 !important;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_issues_1_3 li.selected img {\r\n                    width: 30% !important;\r\n                    height: auto !important;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_issues_1_3 {\r\n                    height: 100%;\r\n                    padding: 20px 0 0 0 !important;\r\n                    box-sizing: content-box;\r\n                    -moz-box-sizing: content-box;\r\n                    -webkit-box-sizing: content-box;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_next_1_3 {\r\n                    position: absolute;\r\n                    z-index: 999 !important;\r\n                    bottom: 15px;\r\n                    font-size: 30px;\r\n                    font-weight: bold;\r\n                    color: #56912d !important;\r\n                    cursor: pointer;\r\n                    right: 40px;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_prev_1_3 {\r\n                    position: absolute;\r\n                    z-index: 999 !important;\r\n                    bottom: 15px;\r\n                    font-size: 30px;\r\n                    font-weight: bold;\r\n                    color: #56912d !important;\r\n                    cursor: pointer;\r\n                    left: 37px;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_issues_1_3 li {\r\n                    height: 100%;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                .rw_content_div_1_3 {\r\n                    max-height: calc(100% - 85px);\r\n                    overflow-x: hidden;\r\n                    padding: 0 35px;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                .rw_content_div_1_3::-webkit-scrollbar {\r\n                    width: 0.5em;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                .rw_content_div_1_3::-webkit-scrollbar-track {\r\n                    -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 0 6px;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                .rw_content_div_1_3::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb {\r\n                    background-color: #ffffff;\r\n                    outline: #ffffff;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                .rw_content_div_1_3 li {\r\n                    opacity: 1 !important;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 #rw_year_1_3 {\r\n                    height: 55px;\r\n                    margin: 15px 0 0 -35px !important;\r\n                    border-bottom: 1px solid#81d742;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 li:before {\r\n                    content: none;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 #rw_year_1_3 #rw_dates_1_3 li a {\r\n                    outline: none;\r\n                    box-shadow: none !important;\r\n                    -moz-box-shadow: none !important;\r\n                    -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;\r\n                    text-decoration: none !important;\r\n                    border: none;\r\n                    vertical-align: initial;\r\n                    display: inline;\r\n                    line-height: 1px;\r\n                    color: #000000;\r\n                    font-size: 18px;\r\n                    height: 18px;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 #rw_year_1_3 #rw_dates_1_3 li a:focus {\r\n                    color: #000000;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 #rw_year_1_3 #rw_dates_1_3 li span.rw_round_1_3 {\r\n                    margin: 0 auto;\r\n                    z-index: 5;\r\n                    width: 15px;\r\n                    height: 15px;\r\n                    background: #81d742;\r\n                    display: block;\r\n                    position: absolute;\r\n                    transform: translateY(-50%);\r\n                    -moz-transform: translateY(-50%);\r\n                    -webkit-transform: translateY(-50%);\r\n                    left: 1px;\r\n                    right: 0;\r\n                    top: 100%;\r\n                    border: 1px solid#59d600;\r\n                    border-radius: 50%;\r\n                    box-sizing: content-box;\r\n                    -moz-box-sizing: content-box;\r\n                    -webkit-box-sizing: content-box;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 #rw_year_1_3 #rw_dates_1_3 li:hover span.rw_round_1_3 {\r\n                    background: #81d742;\r\n                    border: 1px solid#56912d;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 #rw_issues_1_3 .rw_resp_li_1_3 .rw_title_1_3 {\r\n                    text-transform: none !important;\r\n                    background: #56912d;\r\n                    padding: 10px;\r\n                    margin: 0;\r\n                    font-family: Abadi MT Condensed Light !important;\r\n                    line-height: 1;\r\n                    font-size: 20px !important;\r\n                    text-align: center;\r\n                    color: #ffffff;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 #rw_issues_1_3 .rw_resp_li_1_3 .rw_title_1_3:hover {\r\n                    color: #ffffff !important;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 .rw_md_1_3 {\r\n                    font-size: 12px;\r\n                    display: block;\r\n                    color: #81d742;\r\n                    line-height: 1;\r\n                    height: 12px;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 .rw_md_1_3:hover {\r\n                    color: #81d742;\r\n                }\r\n\r\n                #rw_timeline_1_3 pre {\r\n                    background: none !important;\r\n                    padding: 0 !important;\r\n                    margin: 0 !important;\r\n                    border: none !important;\r\n                    outline: none !important;\r\n                    box-shadow: none !important;\r\n                    -moz-box-shadow: none !important;\r\n                    -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;\r\n                }\r\n            <\/style>\r\n\t\t        <input type=\"text\" style=\"display: none;\" name=\"\" id=\"effect_val\"\r\n               class=\"rich_web_effect_val_1_3\"\r\n               value=\"shake\">\r\n        <div style=\"position: relative; display: none; margin-bottom: 30px;\"\r\n             id=\"rw_ti_cont_1_3\">\r\n            <div id=\"rw_timeline_1_3\">\r\n                <div style=\"width: 100%; position: relative;\">\r\n                    <i id=\"rw_next_1_3\"\r\n                       class=\"rich_web rich_web-chevron-circle-right\"\r\n                       style=\"font-style: normal;\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\r\n                    <i id=\"rw_prev_1_3\"\r\n                       class=\"rich_web rich_web-chevron-circle-left\"\r\n                       style=\"font-style: normal;\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\r\n                    <div style=\"height: 100px; margin-left: 80px; margin-right: 80px; overflow: hidden;\">\r\n                        <div id=\"rw_year_1_3\">\r\n                            <ul id=\"rw_dates_1_3\">\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1857\">1857                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\"><br \/>\n<b>Warning<\/b>:  Undefined variable $rw_timeline_month in <b>\/home\/lornadaw\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-content\/plugins\/rich-event-timeline\/Rich-Web-Timeline-Widget.php<\/b> on line <b>2594<\/b><br \/>\n - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1865\">1865                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\"><br \/>\n<b>Warning<\/b>:  Undefined variable $rw_timeline_month in <b>\/home\/lornadaw\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-content\/plugins\/rich-event-timeline\/Rich-Web-Timeline-Widget.php<\/b> on line <b>2594<\/b><br \/>\n - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1865\">1865                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\"><br \/>\n<b>Warning<\/b>:  Undefined variable $rw_timeline_month in <b>\/home\/lornadaw\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-content\/plugins\/rich-event-timeline\/Rich-Web-Timeline-Widget.php<\/b> on line <b>2594<\/b><br \/>\n - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1866\">1866                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Apr - 09<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1868\">1868                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Apr - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1870\">1870                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Apr - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1870\">1870                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Feb - 03<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1873\">1873                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Feb - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1875\">1875                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Mar - 01<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1883\">1883                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Mar - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1890\">1890                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Jul - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1896\">1896                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Jul - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1898\">1898                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 12<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1899\">1899                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1908\">1908                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1909\">1909                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1927\">1927                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1935\">1935                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1938\">1938                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1948\">1948                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1949\">1949                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1950\">1950                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1951\">1951                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1952\">1952                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Mar - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1952\">1952                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Jun - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1952\">1952                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Jun - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1952\">1952                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Oct - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1952\">1952                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Dec - 09<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1953\">1953                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Jun - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1953\">1953                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Sep - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1953\">1953                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Dec - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1954\">1954                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Mar - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1954\">1954                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 17<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1954\">1954                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 17<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1954\">1954                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Oct - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1955\">1955                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">Apr - 00<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                                    <li class=\"\">\r\n                                        <a href=\"#1955\">1955                                            <span class=\"rw_md_1_3\">May - 31<\/span><\/a>\r\n                                        <span class=\"rw_round_1_3\"><\/span>\r\n                                    <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                            <\/ul>\r\n                        <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                <\/div>\r\n\t\t\t\t                <ul id=\"rw_issues_1_3\" style=\"margin: 0;\">\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1857:\u00a0Dred Scott, Plaintiff in Error\u00a0v.\u00a0John\u00a0F.\u00a0A.\u00a0Sanford<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong><em>Dred Scott, Plaintiff in Error<\/em>\u00a0v.\u00a0<\/strong><em><strong>John\u00a0F.\u00a0A.\u00a0Sanford<\/strong><br \/><\/em><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Supreme Court held that Black people, enslaved or free, could not be citizens of the United States.\u00a0<br \/><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Significance:<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">\u00a0The Supreme Court denied citizenship to Black people, setting the stage for their treatment as second class citizens.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1865:\u00a0Black Codes<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>1865:\u00a0Black Codes<\/strong><br \/><\/span><em style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Black Codes\u00a0<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">was a name given to laws passed by southern governments that imposed severe restrictions on freedpeople, such as prohibiting their right to vote, forbidding them to sit on juries, and limiting their right to testify against white men. They were also forbidden from carrying weapons in public places and working in certain occupations.<br \/><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Significance:<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">\u00a0Segregation Begins - Public schools were segregated, and Black people were barred from serving on juries, and testifying against White people.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Sources<br \/><em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.carolana.com\/SC\/Legislators\/Documents\/Acts_of_the_General_Assembly_of_the_State_of_South_Carolina_1864_1865.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\"An Act to Establish and Regulate the Domestic Relations of Persons of Color and to Amend the Law in Relation to Paupers and Vagrency\"\u00a0<\/a> Acts of the General Assembly of the State of South Carolina Passed at the Sessions of 1864-65<\/em>\u00a0(Columbia: 1865), pp. 291-304.\u00a0<br \/><\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1865:\u00a0Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands<\/strong><br \/><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, also known as the\u00a0<em>Freedmen's Bureau<\/em>,was established by an act of Congress on March 3, 1865. Its main mission was to provide relief and help freedmen become self-sufficient in all areas of life.<br \/><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Significance:\u00a0<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The first Black schools were set up under the direction of the Freedmen\u2019s Bureau. One of those schools \u2013 Howard University \u2013 would eventually train and graduate the majority of the legal team that overturned Plessy, including Charles Hamilton Houston and Thurgood Marshall.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1866. Civil Rights Act of 1866<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">1866:\u00a0Civil Rights Act of 1866<br \/><\/span><\/strong><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14px;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The\u00a0Civil Rights Act of 1866 (April 9, 1866) guaranteed Black people basic economic rights to contract, sue, and own property.<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14px;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><br \/><strong>Significance:<\/strong>\u00a0The intention of this law was to protect all persons in the United States, including Black people, in their civil rights.<\/span><\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>Sources<br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/www.congress.gov\/116\/bills\/sres429\/BILLS-116sres429is.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">S. RES. 429.<\/a> Recognizing the imporance of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the laws derived from the CIvil Rights Acr of 1866.\u00a0 Congress.Gov<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1868:\u00a0The 14th Amendment to the Constitution is ratified.<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>1868:\u00a0The 14th Amendment to the Constitution is ratified.<\/strong><br \/><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Significance:<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">\u00a0The 14th Amendment overruled\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Dred Scott\u00a0<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">v.<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 12px;\">\u00a0Sanford<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">. It guaranteed that all persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens of the United States and had rights under the law.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1877 Jim Crow Laws<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong><span style=\"color: #ff0000; font-size: 12px;\">1877 Jim Crow Laws begin to be enforced in the Southern States<br \/><\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px; color: #000000;\">Laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern States.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 These Laws were a reinforcement of\u00a0 \u00a0the \" 1865 Black Codes \"\u00a0 and legalized and enforced the practices of comprehensive racial segregation\u00a0 in the Southern States.\u00a0 Although the 1875 Civil Rights Act stated that all races had a right to equal treatment in public places, the 1883 Supreme Court decsion\u00a0 specfied that this did not apply to private organizations. These Jim Crow Laws were challenged and upheld by the Plessy v. Ferguson case in 1896.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1870 15th Ammendment<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"color: #ff0000; font-size: 14px;\">15th Ammendment is Ratified.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Set free by the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ourdocuments.gov\/doc.php?doc=40\">13th amendment<\/a>, with citizenship guaranteed by the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ourdocuments.gov\/doc.php?doc=43\">14th amendment\u00a0\u00a0<\/a>the 15th amendment gave black males the right to vote.\u00a0<br \/><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><span>Significance: <\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Theortically black males now had the right to vote.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1873:\u00a0Slaughter-House Cases 83 U.S. 36<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. 36 . 1873<br \/><\/strong><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">These cases narrowly defined Federal power and weakened the power of the Fourteenth Amendment by asserting that most of the rights of citizens are\u00a0under state control.<br \/><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Significance:<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">\u00a0Pro-segregation states would come to justify their policies and claim\u00a0that segregation in their public school systems was a states' rights issue.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1875: Civil Rights Act of 1875<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>Civil Rights Act of 1875<\/strong><br \/><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The\u00a0<em>Civil Rights Act of 1875<\/em>,\u00a0 (March 1, 1875) prohibiting discrimination in inns, theaters, and other places of public accommodation. It was the last Federal civil rights act passed until 1957.<br \/><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Significance: <\/strong>Made it illegal to d<span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">iscrimination in places of public places and facilities and stated that all races were to have equal access and treatment in public accomodations.\u00a0 It opposed the segregation that was being enforced\u00a0 in the Southern states through 'Jim Crow laws'.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1883.\u00a0Civil Rights Cases<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>Civil Rights Cases<\/strong><br \/><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Combined five cases that revolved around\u00a0 the Civil Rights ACt of 1875. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the plaintifs and overturned the Civil Rights Act of 1875.\u00a0<br \/><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Significance:<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">\u00a0The Court declared that the 13th\u00a0 or 14th Amendment did not prohibit discrimination by private individuals or businesses, paving the way for segregation in private education.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0Sources<br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/item\/usrep109003\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Civil Rights Cases<\/a>, 109 U.S. 3 (1883). Library of Congress.\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1890. Louisiana Separate Car Act of 1890<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">Louisiana Separate Car Act of 1890<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\">In 1890, Louisiana authorized Section 3 of Act 111 known as the \u201cSeparate Car Act.\u201d The Separate Car Act required that all Louisiana railroad cars have \u201cequal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races\".\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\"><strong>Significance<br \/><\/strong>Railway trains were now permitted to provide equal but separate accomodations or whites and coloreds. Inlcuding separate services for the races. This act did not carry over for other states adn interstate travel, thus creating issues for porters and passengers who traveled outof state. This was contested by Homer Plessy who refuesd to sit in the collord section and subsequently became the plaintif in\u00a0 the Plessy v. Ferguson 1986 Supreme Court Case.\u00a0<br \/><br \/><strong>Sources<\/strong><br \/><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\">The Louisiana Railway Accomodations Act.<br \/><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/railroads.unl.edu\/documents\/view_document.php?id=rail.gen.0060\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/railroads.unl.edu\/documents\/view_document.php?id=rail.gen.0060<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\">The Separate or \"Jim Crow\" Car Laws or Legislative Enactment of the Fourteen Southern States.\u00a0 Louisiana Laws. pp 22-27<br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/separateorjimcr00boydgoog\/page\/n35\/mode\/1up\">https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/separateorjimcr00boydgoog\/page\/n35\/mode\/1up<\/a><br \/><br \/><\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1896. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14px; font-family: gadugi;\">Homer A. Plessy challenged an 1890 Louisiana law that required separate train cars for Black Americans and White Americans. The Supreme Court held that separate but equal facilities for White and Black railroad passengers did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.<br \/><strong>Significance:<\/strong> Plessy v. Ferguson established the \u201cseparate but equal\u201d doctrine that would become the constitutional basis for segregation.Justice John Marshall Harlan, the lone dissenter in Plessy, argued that forced segregation of the races stamped Blacks with a badge of inferiority. That same line of argument would become a decisive factor in the Brown v. Board decision.<br \/><\/span><\/p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">\u00a0<\/p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><span style=\"font-family: gadugi; font-size: 14px;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><strong>The Details<\/strong><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.history.com\/topics\/black-history\/plessy-v-ferguson\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><br \/>Plessy v. Ferguson: A day in History\u00a0<\/a><\/span><br \/><span style=\"font-family: gadugi; font-size: 14px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/today.law.harvard.edu\/plessy-v-ferguson-at-125\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Reed, Racheal. \"Plessy v. Ferguson 125\" . Harvard Law Today. May 2021<\/a><\/span><br \/><span style=\"font-family: gadugi;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/supremecourt\/text\/163\/537\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Plessy v. Ferguson\u00a016 S.Ct. 1138<\/a>.<\/span> <em>Transcription<\/em>. Cornel Law School. Legal Information Institute<br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/louisianadigitallibrary.org\/islandora\/object\/uno-p16313coll86collection\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Ex Parte Plessy.<\/a>\u00a0<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX9 SCXW159860839\">This collection\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX9 SCXW159860839\">contains<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX9 SCXW159860839\">\u00a0primary sources for the case including transcripts of the original court case, the legal arguments used by civil rights activist Albion W.\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX9 DefaultHighlightTransition SCXW159860839\">Tourg\u00e9,<span class=\"TextRun BCX9 SCXW159860839\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX9 SCXW159860839\">he defense of the arguments by Judge John Howard Ferguson and the decisions by former Governor and Chief Justice Francis T. Nicholls.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"LineBreakBlob BlobObject DragDrop BCX9 SCXW159860839\"><span class=\"BCX9 SCXW159860839\">\u00a0<\/span><br class=\"BCX9 SCXW159860839\" \/><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">\u00a0<\/p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">\u00a0<\/p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1898 State of Louisiana Constitution 1898<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"color: #ff0000; font-size: 12px;\">State of Louisiana Constitution, 1898<\/span><br \/><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\">The\u00a0 State of Louisiana Constitution is adopted introducing restrictice provisions, creating a poll tax, listeracy and property-ownership requirements\u00a0 and complex voter registration form. Designed to bar Black men from voting.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong>Between 1889 and 1913, nine states outside the South added restrictions requiring voters to read English, and\u00a0 reforms like the secret ballot were directed at pushing out foreign-born and illiterate voters. Aimed specifically at African Americans\u00a0 the Lousiana's Grandfather clause allowed men to register to vote only if they could have voted in 1867 (before African Americans were allowed to vote in the South) or descended from an 1867 voter.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\">Sources<\/span><br \/><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sharetngov.tnsosfiles.com\/tsla\/exhibits\/aale\/pdfs2\/1898LAGrandfatherClause.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Text of the Original \"Grandfather Clause\" State of Louisiana, 1898.<\/a><\/span><br \/><br \/><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1988. Cumming v. Board of Education of Richmond County, State of Georgia<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Supreme Court upheld a local school board's decision to close a free public Black school due to fiscal constraints, despite the fact that the district continued to operate two free public white schools.<br \/><br \/><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The Court\u2019s opinion argued that there was no evidence in the record that the decision was based on racial discrimination and that the distribution of public funds for public education was within the discretion of school authorities.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1908. Berea College v. Commonwealth of Kentucky<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Supreme Court upheld a Kentucky state law forbidding interracial instruction at all schools and colleges in the state.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The NAACP became the primary tool for the legal attack on segregation, eventually trying the Brown v. Board of Education case.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1909. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People founded<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">W.E.B. DuBois, Ida Wells-Barnett, Mary White Ovington, and others founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Their mission was to eliminate lynching, and to fight racial and social injustice, primarily through legal action.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The NAACP became the primary tool for the legal attack on segregation, eventually trying the Brown v. Board of Education case.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1927. Gong Lum v. Rice<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">In Gong Lum v. Rice the Supreme Court held that a Mississippi school district may require a Chinese-American girl to attend a segregated Black school rather than a White school.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The Court applied the \"separate but equal\" formulation of Plessy v. Ferguson to the public schools.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1935. NAACP begins challenging segregation in graduate and secondary schools.<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\">Assisted by his protege Thurgood Marshall, Charles Hamilton Houston, of the NAACP, began his strategy of challenging segregation in graduate and professional schools.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 10px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> Houston developed a legal strategy that would eventually lead to victory over segregation in the nation\u2019s schools through the Brown v. Board case. Houston\u2019s rationale for attacking segregated law schools was largely two-pronged. First, the establishment of separate but equal law school facilities for Black and White students would become too costly for the states. Second, White judges who matriculated in some of the nation\u2019s finest law schools could not, in good conscience, suggest that Black lawyers in segregated schools received \"equal\" legal training.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1938. State of Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Supreme Court decided in favor of Lloyd Gaines, a Black student who had been refused admission to the University of Missouri Law School.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> This case set a precedent for other states to attempt to \"equalize\" Black school facilities, rather than integrate them. The Court held that the state must furnish Gaines \"within its borders facilities for legal education substantially equal to those which the State there offered for the persons of the white race, whether or not other Negroes sought the same opportunity.\"<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1948. Sipuel v. Board of Regents of University of Oklahoma<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">A unanimous Supreme Court held that Lois Ada Sipuel could not be denied entrance to a state law school solely because of her race.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The Court ruled denial of entrance to a state law school solely on the basis of race unconstitutional.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1949. Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al.<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Thurgood Marshall and NAACP officials met with Black residents of Clarendon County, SC. They decided that the NAACP would launch a test case against segregation in public schools if at least 20 plaintiffs could be found. By November, Harry Briggs and 19 other plaintiffs were assembled, and the NAACP filed a class action lawsuit against the Clarendon County School Board.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> Briggs v. Elliott became one of the cases consolidated by the Supreme Court into Brown v. Board of Education.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1950. Sweatt v. Painter \u2013\u2013 McLaurin\u00a0v.\u00a0Oklahoma State Regents \u2013\u2013 Bolling v. Sharpe<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>Sweatt v. Painter<\/strong><\/span><\/span><br \/>The Supreme Court held that the University of Texas Law School must admit a Black student, Heman Sweatt. The University of Texas Law School was far superior in its offerings and resources to the separate Black law school, which had been hastily established in a downtown basement.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The Supreme Court held that Texas failed to provide separate but equal education, prefiguring the future opinion in Brown that \"separate but equal is inherently unequal.\"<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>McLaurin\u00a0v.\u00a0Oklahoma State Regents<\/strong><\/span><\/span><br \/>The Supreme Court invalidated the University of Oklahoma's requirement that a Black student, admitted to a graduate program unavailable to him at the state's Black school, sit in separate sections of or in spaces adjacent to the classroom, library, and cafeteria.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The Supreme Court held that these restrictions were unconstitutional because it interfered with his \"ability to study, to engage in discussions, and exchange views with other students, and, in general, to learn his profession.\"<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14px; color: #ff0000;\"><strong>Bolling v. Sharpe<\/strong><\/span><\/span><br \/>Charles Houston provided legal representation for the Consolidated Parents Group, who, under the direction of Gardner Bishop, attempted to enroll a group of Black students in all White John Philip Sousa Junior High School, in Washington, D.C.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The Bolling case became one of the consolidated Brown cases. The U. S. Supreme Court would eventually file a separate opinion on Bolling because the 14th Amendment was not applicable in Washington, D.C.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1951. Brown vs Board of Education Case Filed \u2013\u2013 Davis v Prince Edward County School Board \u2013\u2013 Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al. \u2013\u2013 Belton et al \/Bulah et al. v. Gebhart et al.<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\"><strong><span style=\"font-size: 14px;\">Brown vs Board of Education I<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">On February 28, Brown v. Board of Education was filed in Federal district court, in Kansas.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> This marked the beginning of the quest to challenge the \"Separate but Equal\" decision of the Plessy vs Fergueson cass.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\"><strong>Davis et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia, et al.<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">NAACP lawyer Spottswood Robinson filed Davis v. Prince Edward County, a challenge to Virginia's segregated schools.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> Davis et al.County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia, et al., was another of the cases eventually consolidated as Brown v. Board of Education.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000; font-size: 14px;\"><strong>Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al.<\/strong><\/span><\/span><br \/>This South Carolina case went to trial. Marshall and the NAACP presented a vast array of social science evidence showing how segregation harmed Black school children, including evidence from sociologist Kenneth Clark's controversial \"Doll Study.\"<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The U. S. District Court denied the Briggs plaintiff\u2019s request to order desegregation of Clarendon County, SC, schools and instead ordered the equalization of Black schools. Judge Julius Waring was the lone dissenter.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\"><strong><span style=\"font-size: 14px;\">Brown vs Board of Education I<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">June. Robert Carter led the NAACP legal team into trial on the Brown v. Board of Education case.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> In August, a three-judge panel at the U. S. District Court unanimously held in the Brown v. Board of Education case that \"no willful, intentional or substantial discrimination\" existed in Topeka\u2019s schools. The U. S. District Court found that the physical facilities in White and Black schools were comparable and that the lower court\u2019s decisions in Sweatt v. Painter and McLaurin only applied to graduate education.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 14px;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">Belton et al. v. Gebhart et al. + Bulah et al. v. Gebhart et al.<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Louis Redding led these cases to trial. These two cases challenged the segregated schoools in Wilmington Delaware- rural Howard Hihh School ( Bulah case) and suburban Claymont High School<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The Belton and Bulah cases would ultimately join four other NAACP cases in the Supreme Court ruling in Brown.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1952. Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, VA<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The U. S. District court found in favor of the school board under the theory of \"separate but equal.\"<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The U. S. District Court unanimously rejected the Davis plaintiffs\u2019 request to order desegregation of Prince Edward County, VA, schools, ordering the \"equalization\" of Black schools instead.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1952. Belton et al. v. Gebhart et al.; Bulah et al. v. Gebhart et al.<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A Delaware court ruled that the plaintiffs were entitled to immediate admission to White public schools.<\/p><p><strong>Significance:<\/strong> In both of the Gebhart cases, the court ruled that the plaintiffs were being denied equal protection of the law and ordered that the 11 children involved be immediately admitted to Delaware\u2019s White schools. The board of education appealed the decision. This did not apply broadly throughout Delaware.<\/p><p>Belton v. Gebhart : <a title=\"Belton v, Gebhart\" href=\"https:\/\/brown65.the74million.org\/beltonvgebhart\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/brown65.the74million.org\/beltonvgebhart<\/a><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1952. Briggs v. Brown<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Supreme Court announced that it would hear oral arguments in Briggs and Brown during the upcoming October 1952 term.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance<\/strong>:This would then become one of the cases in the Brown v. Board of Education case.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1952. The Bundling of the Brown v. Board Cases<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Days before arguments were to be heard in Briggs and Brown, the Supreme Court announced a postponement. Three weeks later, the Court announced that it would also hear the Delaware cases, as well as Davis v. Prince Edward County and the District of Columbia case, Bolling et al. v. Sharpe et al.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Significance: The Supreme Court agreed to hear all five of the school desegregation cases collectively. This grouping was significant because it showed school segregation as a national issue, not just a southern one.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">[Note: The U. S. Supreme Court eventually rendered a separate opinion on Bolling v. Sharpe because the 14th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution was not applicable in the District of Columbia.]<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1952. Brown v. Board of Education Begins<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">First round of arguments held in Brown v. Board of Education and its companion cases.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1953. Second Round of Arguments in Brown v. Board of Education<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Supreme Court ordered that a second round of arguments in Brown v. Board be heard in October.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1953. Chief Justice Fred Vinson Jr. died<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Chief Justice Fred Vinson Jr. died unexpectedly of a heart attack on the 8th. President Eisenhower nominated California Governor Earl Warren to replace Vinson as interim Chief on the 30th. The Court rescheduled arguments in Brown for December.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance<\/strong>: Justice Earl Warren would go on to deliver the unanimous ruling in the Brown v. Board case.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1953. Second round of arguments Brown v. Board of Education<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Supreme court hears the second round of arguments in Brown v. Board of Education.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1954. New Chief Justice appointed<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Senate confirmed Earl Warren as Chief Justice.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1954 Brown v. Board of Education<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The Court overturned Plessy v. Ferguson, and declared that racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Protection clause of the 14th Amendment.<\/p><p>The Details<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.history.com\/topics\/black-history\/brown-v-board-of-education-of-topeka\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brown v. Board of Education.<\/a> This Day in History. May 13. 2021<\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1954. Bolling v. Sharpe<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">That same day, the Court held that racial segregation in the District of Columbia public schools violated the Due Process clause of the 5th Amendment in Bolling v. Sharpe.The Court scheduled arguments on remedy in Brown for October but eventually put them off until April of 1955.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance:<\/strong> The Court ruled that state-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th Amendment and was, therefore, unconstitutional. In the wake of the decision, the District of Columbia and some school districts in the border states began to desegregate their schools voluntarily.State legislatures in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia adopted resolutions of \"interposition and nullification\" that declared the Court's decision to be \"null, void, and no effect.\"<\/span><br \/><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">Various southern legislatures passed laws that imposed sanctions on anyone who implemented desegregation, and enacted school closing plans that authorized the suspension of public education, and the disbursement of public funds to parents to send their children to private schools.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1954. Death of Justice Jackson<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">After the sudden death of Justice Jackson, President Eisenhower nominated John Marshall Harlan, the grandson of the lone dissenter in Plessy, to fill the vacancy. After long hearings before the Senate, Harlan was finally sworn in as an Associate Justice in March of 1955.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1956. Third Round of Arguments in Brown v. Board of Education<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">The Supreme Court heard its third round of arguments in Brown, this time concerning remedies.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                        <li class=\"rw_resp_li_1_3\" style=\"width: 100%;\">\r\n                            <div class=\"rw_content_div_1_3\">\r\n                                <h3 class=\"rw_title_1_3\">1955 Brown v. Board of Education II<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\">On the last day of the term, the Supreme Court handed down Brown II, ordering that desegregation occur with \"all deliberate speed.<\/span><\/p><p><br \/><span style=\"font-size: 12px;\"><strong>Significance<\/strong>: Brown II was intended to work out the mechanics of desegregation. Due to the vagueness of the term \"all deliberate speed,\" many states were able to stall the Court\u2019s order to desegregate their schools. The legal and social obstacles that southern states put in place and encouraged, in their effort to thwart integration, served as a catalyst for the student protests that launched the civil rights movement.<\/span><\/p>                            <\/div>\r\n                        <\/li>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t                <\/ul>\r\n            <\/div>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n        <script>\r\n            jQuery.fn.timelinr_1_3 = function (options_1_3) {\r\n                settings_1_3 = jQuery.extend({\r\n                    orientation_1_3: \"horizontal\",\r\n                    containerDiv_1_3: \"#rw_timeline_1_3\",\r\n                    datesDiv_1_3: \"#rw_dates_1_3\",\r\n                    datesSelectedClass_1_3: 'selected',\r\n                    datesSpeed_1_3: \"normal\",\r\n                    issuesDiv_1_3: \"#rw_issues_1_3\",\r\n                    issuesSelectedClass_1_3: 'selected',\r\n                    issuesSpeed_1_3: \"slow\",\r\n                    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National Archives @ <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.archives.gov\/education\/lessons\/brown-v-board\/timeline.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.archives.gov\/education\/lessons\/brown-v-board\/timeline.html<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Sources and Further Reading<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Adapted from the Educators Resources. National Archives @ https:\/\/www.archives.gov\/education\/lessons\/brown-v-board\/timeline.html Sources and Further Reading<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-83","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/83","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=83"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/83\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":480,"href":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/83\/revisions\/480"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/africanamericanne.lornadawes.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=83"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}